Closed PHC BOT TEST

[Kumorin]

Please get the main ideas of the text below:
.2 Modalities (Materials, AV)
‘While not espousing any particular approach in this chapter, we feel that many professionals rec- ognize the importance of practice in the acquisi-
tion of any cognitive skill. There is increasing recognition* of SL learning as a process of skill
acquisition (O’Malley, Chamot, and Walker
1987), which implies the importance of practice, or output, rather than mere input (cf. Pica et al.
1996; Swain and Lapkin 1995). Teachers thus
need to remain aware that they are not in the classroom to fill up the time with the sound of their own voices, but to arrange matters so that their students do the talking (or writing, or lis- tening). Particularly in EFL rather than ESL situ- ations, class time is so valuable that we believe the teacher should move on to practice phases of a lesson as soon as possible in a manner consistent with an adequate presentation of material and the giving of clear instructions for some practice exercises.
Assuming that the instructor decides that a given teaching objective calls for some support in the way of materials, what then? The major resource is of course the textbook. In addition, other teaching aids fall into two categories
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(Celce-Murcia 1979): nontechnical aids and technical aids (not counting the students them- selves, who can of course play a stimulating role in the presentation stages of a lesson). The for-
mer include the chalkboard, realia, flashcards,
magazine pictures, and charts. The latter include the overhead projector, audio and video record- ings, CD-ROM, and Internet. Both types of aids are considered clsewhere in this book (see chap- ters by Brinton and Sokolik in this volume).
Despite increasing research into some
media, the range of classroom and cultural con- texts for TES/FL means that deciding whether
or not to use AV aids is usually a matter for indi- vidual teacher judgment, supported by general considerations. Does their use in a given circum- stance aid comprehension? Do they stimulate more student talk than would have otherwise
occurred? Above all, does their use constitute an
efficient use of class time, particularly taking into account the teacher time required to produce them or the logistics of setting up and removing any necessary equipment? This is an area in which careful teacher investigation and reporting of successes and failures in practice would benefit the profession.
Perhaps because of the complexity of the question, a surprisingly small amount of research informs teachers of how to use a text- book (but see Tomlinson 1997). For the
untrained teacher, a good textbook can stand in
for a syllabus and training program, while an
experienced teacher can use the text as an aid,
adopting some parts, adapting others (Stevick 1971), or can even dispense with it completely. The utility of the average textbook for a typical present-day ESL/EFL course is normally unques- tioned (but see Allwright 1981 and O’Neill 1982 for positions on both sides of this point).
Nonetheless, we urge teachers to remember that
most textbooks in a given period of time are often very much alike (Ariew 1982); they are the product of the pressures of the market, as imper- fectly interpreted through the publisher and
materials writer, and can often run counter to
legitimate educational pressures. What sells may
not be what works; what works may not neces-
sarily have a format which book publishing

 

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The text discusses the importance of practice in the acquisition of cognitive skill in SL learning. Teachers are advised to focus on arranging classroom activities that encourage student participation rather than dominating the class with their own voice. The use of teaching materials and AV aids, such as textbooks and audio/video recordings, can be helpful but requires careful consideration and judgment on the part of the teacher. The utility of textbooks is noted, but teachers are urged to remember that they can be limited by market pressures and may not always be the best option for effective teaching. Overall, the text emphasizes the need for teacher investigation and reporting of successes and failures to benefit the profession.

 

[Kumorin]

The text discusses the importance of practice in the acquisition of cognitive skill in SL learning. Teachers are advised to focus on arranging classroom activities that encourage student participation rather than dominating the class with their own voice. The use of teaching materials and AV aids, such as textbooks and audio/video recordings, can be helpful but requires careful consideration and judgment on the part of the teacher. The utility of textbooks is noted, but teachers are urged to remember that they can be limited by market pressures and may not always be the best option for effective teaching. Overall, the text emphasizes the need for teacher investigation and reporting of successes and failures to benefit the profession.

hehe thanks

 

[🤖]

hehe thanks

You're welcome! Let me know if you need any further assistance.

 

[Kumorin]

You're welcome! Let me know if you need any further assistance.

can you get the important ideas in the text below?
What goes on in the language classroom between the teacher and students is obviously the core area of information pertaining to for- mal second language (SL) teaching and learn- ing. “Out-of-class” knowledge of language
teaching in areas such as needs analysis, curricu-
lum design, lesson planning, materials design, and evaluation is, of course, necessary for a truly professional operation, but so long as there is a teacher working with a group of students, the essence of classroom SL teaching resides in the nature of instruction and interaction between teachers and students.
In this chapter we identify and discuss some of the more important characteristics and prin- ciples of this interaction.2 Our conception of the teacher is someone with a great number of deci- sions to make at every moment of classroom
instruction. In some cases, research findings can guide those decisions. In others, research can
inform professional judgment, but decisions must be based on experience and intuition rather than knowledge. However, decisions will be aided by a knowledge of the range of instruc- tional alternatives available, as well as by an awareness of the cultural context and personal values of the teacher and students.
‘When a second language is taught, a num- ber of major steps must be taken. First, elements of the language or its use, or skills such as learn- ing strategies, must be brought into the classroom and presented or highlighted. The teacher and,
under certain learnercentered conditions, the students sclect elements of the SL in this phase.3
Second, that which has been sclected and pre- sented must be learned; the teacher has to
arrange matters and events to bring this about. Third, the teacher must provide knowledge of results, that is, correction or feedback, to the students.
‘We should not ignore that these processes take place in a social milieu, and that because of the way language functions between individuals, these processes cannot be totally separated from the social climate which develops among stu- dents and between teacher and students, though space does not permit us to address this impor-
tant point here. Finally, let us note that consci-
entious SL teachers usually come out of a class asking themselves how the class went—in other words, engaging in a process of self-evaluation. We believe that this is a vital process for profes- sional self-development, and one which needs to be explicitly structured into SL teachers’ routines. See Murphy’s chapter on reflective teaching in this volume, for a full discussion.

 

[🤖]

can you get the important ideas in the text below?
What goes on in the language classroom between the teacher and students is obviously the core area of information pertaining to for- mal second language (SL) teaching and learn- ing. “Out-of-class” knowledge of language
teaching in areas such as needs analysis, curricu-
lum design, lesson planning, materials design, and evaluation is, of course, necessary for a truly professional operation, but so long as there is a teacher working with a group of students, the essence of classroom SL teaching resides in the nature of instruction and interaction between teachers and students.
In this chapter we identify and discuss some of the more important characteristics and prin- ciples of this interaction.2 Our conception of the teacher is someone with a great number of deci- sions to make at every moment of classroom
instruction. In some cases, research findings can guide those decisions. In others, research can
inform professional judgment, but decisions must be based on experience and intuition rather than knowledge. However, decisions will be aided by a knowledge of the range of instruc- tional alternatives available, as well as by an awareness of the cultural context and personal values of the teacher and students.
‘When a second language is taught, a num- ber of major steps must be taken. First, elements of the language or its use, or skills such as learn- ing strategies, must be brought into the classroom and presented or highlighted. The teacher and,
under certain learnercentered conditions, the students sclect elements of the SL in this phase.3
Second, that which has been sclected and pre- sented must be learned; the teacher has to
arrange matters and events to bring this about. Third, the teacher must provide knowledge of results, that is, correction or feedback, to the students.
‘We should not ignore that these processes take place in a social milieu, and that because of the way language functions between individuals, these processes cannot be totally separated from the social climate which develops among stu- dents and between teacher and students, though space does not permit us to address this impor-
tant point here. Finally, let us note that consci-
entious SL teachers usually come out of a class asking themselves how the class went—in other words, engaging in a process of self-evaluation. We believe that this is a vital process for profes- sional self-development, and one which needs to be explicitly structured into SL teachers’ routines. See Murphy’s chapter on reflective teaching in this volume, for a full discussion.

The text discusses the importance of the interaction between the teacher and students in the language classroom for formal second language teaching and learning. The teacher is described as someone who must make a great number of decisions at every moment of classroom instruction based on research findings, experience, and intuition. The text also outlines the major steps in second language teaching, which include selecting and presenting elements of the language or its use, arranging matters and events to facilitate learning, and providing feedback to the students. The social milieu of the classroom is noted as an important factor in language learning. Finally, the text emphasizes the importance of self-evaluation and reflective teaching for professional self-development.

 

[Kumorin]

The text discusses the importance of the interaction between the teacher and students in the language classroom for formal second language teaching and learning. The teacher is described as someone who must make a great number of decisions at every moment of classroom instruction based on research findings, experience, and intuition. The text also outlines the major steps in second language teaching, which include selecting and presenting elements of the language or its use, arranging matters and events to facilitate learning, and providing feedback to the students. The social milieu of the classroom is noted as an important factor in language learning. Finally, the text emphasizes the importance of self-evaluation and reflective teaching for professional self-development.

Can you make a short version or summarize of the text below?
3.2 Task Types and Parameters
A number of the labels from this list of activities have entered into the research and pedagogical literature on “tasks.” Currently there is consider- able experimental work being conducted on factors that differentiate learning tasks with respect to their parameters and their influence on learners’ production in terms of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. Some of these factors are summarized in this section (see also the seminal collection of studies in Crookes and Gass 1993a, 1993b).
Below are three commonly applied defini- tions of tasks, falling on a continuum from the notion of “real-world” tasks to specifically focused pedagogical activities:
[a] piece of work undertaken for one- self or for others, freely or for some reward ... examples . .. include paint- ing a fence, dressing a child, buying a pair of shoes . . . by “task” is- meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between (Long 1985, p. 89).
a task is taken to be an activity in which meaning is primary; there is some sort of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority; and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome (Skehan 1996, p- 38).
the smallest unit of classroom work which involves learners in compre- hending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language. Minimally, tasks will contain some form of data or input (this might be verbal, e.g., a dialogue or reading passage, or nonverbal, e.g., a picture
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sequence). The task will also have (implicitly or explicitly) a goal and roles for teachers and learners. (Nunan 19893, p. 5).
Almost anything can be used as the basis of 2 task, such as dialogues, public announcements, newspaper headlines, telephone directories, or picture strips (Nunan 1989). In many SL teaching situations, use of a variety of texts (written and spo- ken) is justified, since part of developing learners’ skill is ensuring that they become familiar with as wide a range of text types as possible.
Current research is focusing on ways and means to establish a priori the relative complexity of tasks. This will aid task selection as well as support the development of task-based syl- labuses. Robinson (2000) has recently proposed a distinction between task complexity, task condi- tions, and task difficulty, which can be compared with schemas for the analysis of task factors and dimensions proposed in earlier work, such as that of Nunan (1989), Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun
(1993), and Skeban (1996). Robinson includes in task complexity only those factors that affect learners’ cognitive resources for attention and processing of information and therefore affect the accuracy, fluency, and complexity of their production. These characteristics are viewed as continua, with end points represented by the presence or absence () of features: + few ele- ments, + here-and-now reference (vs. there-and- then), + reasoning demands, + planning, + single task, and + prior knowledge. There are several studies which have demonstrated, for example, that allowing for planning in the performance of tasks leads to improvements in either accuracy, fluency, or complexity or combinations of these positive outcomes (Crookes 1989; Ortega 1999). Similarly, less complex tasks favor the more posi- tive end of each continuum. As complexity increases, fluency and accuracy tend to drop.
‘What Robinson proposes as task conditions have often been examined in the literature with respect to their effects on amount of learner pro- duction, interaction, and feedback. Thus, “partic- ipation variables” such as open and closed tasks, one-way and two-way tasks, and convergent and
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divergent tasks have been shown to have substan- tive effects on interaction. Some of these are dis- cussed briefly below. Likewise, “participant variables” such as gender similarities or differ- ences, familiarity among learners, and power rela- tionships can have an influence on task outcomes.
Finally, Robinson makes an important dis- tinction between those factors that can be de- scribed for specific tasks and the learner-internal factors that influence the difficulty that different learners will have in ability to perform on any given task. These include learners’ motivation, anxiety, confidence, aptitude, level of attained proficiency in the L2, and intelligence. Skehan (1996) has also pointed out the importance of various pressures on learners (e.g., time pres- sures) that can affect how successfully they per- form on tasks.
It is important to note that whatever approach one takes to the task analysis, it must be embedded in an analysis of the effects of task sequencing. That is, as suggested in the listing of activities within phases in the previous section, implementation of tasks in pedagogically ratio- nal sequences can accomplish a great deal toward ensuring learner success on a given task. Skehan’s model (1996, p. 57) of task implemen-
tation, for instance, suggests ways in which pre-
tasks help establish target language or reduce cognitive load through consciousness-raising or practice, and post-tasks help learners to restruc- ture and integrate target forms or functions, increasing the integration of learning goals as further similar tasks are performed.